The term largely disappeared by the mid-1990s particularly after Deng Xiaoping’s trip to the south. Much of the reason for the disappearance was that by the mid-1990s the Communist Party of China leadership believed that by attempting to provide Chinese with increased wealth and a standard of living which existed in the West, that it would be able to co-opt the support of the rich and middle classes and hold on to political power.

See also

• Bourgeoisie
• Liberalism

House of Milan was sold to Lyndon Distributors who occasionally reprints and reissues some of the magazines and films of HOM when it was an active company.

Some of HOM’s longest-running titles have included:

• Bondage Classics (1972 - 1991)
• Bondage in the Buff (1982 - 1999)
• Bondage Photographer (1982 - 2000)
• Bound to Please (1972 - 1999)
• Captured (1975 - 1999)
• Hogtie (1972 - 1992)
• Hogtied (1993 - 1999)
• Hush (1993 - 1999)
• Knotty (1971 - 2000)
• Latent Image (1972 - 1995)
• Now, Darling (1983 - 1992)
• Punished (1978 - 2001)
• Slave Auction (1985 - 1992)
• Strict (1982 - 1997)
• Tied & Tickled (1985 - 1998)
• Ties That Bind (1985 - 1999)
• Tight Ropes (1980 - 2001)

External links

ADULT CONTENT

Lyndon Distributors, successor of HOM and reissuer [1]

• http://www.jahsonic.com/HOM.html

In 1989 Pernod Ricard purchased Orlando Wines, and then a year later, in 1990, the Hunter Valley winery Wyndham Estate. The same year the Orlando Wyndham Group was formed by the drawing together of the two companies. In 2005 Pernod Ricard took over Allied Domecq and the New Zealand business unit Allied Domecq NZ was integrated into the company which was subsequently renamed to Pernod Ricard Pacific.

Wineries

Currently Pernod Ricard Pacific owns various wineries including:

• Orlando Wines, Barossa Valley, South Australia
• Wyndham Estate, Hunter Valley, New South Wales
• Richmond Grove, Barossa Valley, South Australia
• Poet’s Corner, Mudgee, New South Wales
• Wickham Hill, Griffith, New South Wales
• Morris Wines, Rutherglen, Victoria
• Russet Ridge, Naracoorte, South Australia
• Framingham Wine Company, Renwick, New Zealand

Brands

Pernod Ricard Pacific produces and/or distributes products under many brands, including:

Wine

Ready to Drink

• West Coast Cooler
• Wild Turkey and Cola
• Two Dogs
• Maison

Spirits

External links

• Pernod Ricard Pacific website
• Pernod Ricard website

External link

• Official website of the Expo

References

The journal is issued six times a year and features practical winemaking, practical grape growing, articles on wine regions and wine styles, vintage reports, marketing, finance and management, research papers, and industry news and analyses.

See also

• Australian wine
• New Zealand wine

Source

• Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Journal

Astronomers measure the amount of light a star gives off in different colors. Hot stars give off more blue light than red; cool stars give off more red light than blue. Colored filters are used to measure different wavelengths of light from stars. The magnitude of the star is measured first through a standardized B-band (”blue”) filter. Then the star’s magnitude is measured through a V-band (”visible”, peaking in green) filter. The value of V is subtracted from B to get the B-V color index.

As a star gets cooler and therefore more red, the B-V color index increases, since smaller magnitudes correspond to brighter light. Hot stars have a small B-V and cool stars have a large B-V. Hotter stars therefore appear to the left on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and cooler stars appear on the right.

See also

• UBV photometric system
• Color index

History and Design

An acoustic cleaner consists of 2 parts.

• The wave generator which takes the compressed air and applies it to a diaphragm (acoustics). The wave generator is usually made from solid machined stainless steel. The diaphragm within the generator is the only moving part within an acoustic cleaner and there is no danger of sparking.The diaphragm is usually manufactured from special aerospace grade titanium to ensure performance and longevity.
• The bell, which is usually made from spun 316 grade stainless steel. The bell is a resonance section or amplifier and it will tune and direct the sound waves.

An acoustic cleaner is powered by compressed air with an operating range of between 4.8 to 6.2 bars or 70 to 90 psi. The resultant sound pressure level will be around 150 dB.

The overall length of the acoustic cleaner will range from between 430 mm to over 3 metres long.

There are generally 4 ways to control the operation of an acoustic cleaner.

• The most common is by a simple timer.
• SCADA.
• PLC (programmable logic controller).
• Manually by Ball valve.

An acoustic cleaner will typically sound for 10 seconds and then wait for a further 500 seconds before sounding again. This ratio for on/off is approximately proportional to the working life of the diaphragm. Provided the operating environment is between – 40 and 100 °C a diaphragm should last between 3 and 5 years. The wave generator and the bell have a much longer life span and will often outlast the environment in which they operate.

The older bells which were made from cast iron were susceptible to rusting in certain environments. The new bells made from 316 spun steel have no problem with rust and are ideal for sterile environments such as found in the food industry or in pharmaceutical plants.

Acoustic cleaning began in the early 1970s with experiments using ship horns or air raid sirens. The first acoustic cleaners were made from cast iron. From 1990 onwards the technology became commercially viable and began to be used in dry processing, storage, transport, power generation and manufacturing industries. The latest technology uses 316 spun stainless steel to ensure optimum performance.

Operation and performance

The majority of acoustic cleaners operate in the audio sonic range from 60 hertz up to 420 Hz. Occasionally there is a requirement to operate in the infrasonic range below 40 Hz. This would apply if there were strict noise control requirements, or there was limited plant access.
There are three scientific fields which converge in the understanding of Acoustic Cleaning Technology.

• Sound propagation. This relates to an understanding of the nature of the sound waves, how they vary and how they will interact with the environment.
• Mathematics of the environment. Materials science, surface friction, distance and areas familiar to a mechanical engineer.
• Chemical engineering. The chemical properties of the powder or substance to be debonded. Especially the auto adhesive properties of the powder.

An acoustic cleaner will create a series of very rapid and powerful sound induced pressure fluctuations which are then transmitted into the solid particles of ash, dust, granules or powder. This causes them to move at differing speeds and debond from adjoining particles and the surface that they are adhering to. Once they have been separated then the material will fall off due to gravity or it will be carried away by the process gas or air stream.

The key features which determine whether or not an acoustic cleaner will be effective for any given problem are the particle size range, the moisture content and the density of the particles as well as how these characteristics will change with temperature and time..
Typically particles between 20 micrometre and 5 mm with moisture content below 8.5% are ideal. Upper temperature limits are dependent upon the melting point of the particles and acoustic cleaners have been employed at temperatures above 1000 C to remove ash build up in boiler plants.

It is important to match the operating frequencies to the requirements. Higher frequencies can be directed more accurately whilst lower frequencies will carry further, and are generally used for more demanding requirements. A typical selection of frequencies available would be as follows:

• 420 Hz for a small acoustic cleaner which might be used to clear bridging at the base of a silo.
• 350 Hz will be more powerful and this frequency can be used to unblock material build up in ID (induced draft) fans, filters, cyclones, mixers, dryers and coolers.
• 230 Hz. At this frequency the power involved is sufficient to use in most electricity generation applications.
• 75 Hz and 60 Hz. These are generally the most powerful acoustic cleaners and are often used in large vessels and silos.

Health and safety.

The introduction of acoustic cleaners has been a significant improvement in many areas of health and safety. For instance in silo cleaning - the previous solutions tended to be intrusive or destructive. Air cannons, soot blowers, external vibrators, hammering or costly man entry are all superseded by non invasive sonic horns.
An acoustic cleaner requires no down time and will operate during normal usage of the site.
If we take the example of silo cleaning a little further then there are two typical problems.

Bridging

This is when the silo blocks at the outlet. Previously the problem was addressed by manual cleaning from underneath the silo which in its turn introduced significant risk from falling material when the blockage was cleared. An acoustic cleaner is able to operate from the top of a silo through in situ material to clear the blockage at the base.

Rat holing

Compaction on the side of a silo. This not only reduces the operating volume in a silo but it also compromises quality control by disrupting the first in first out cycle. Older material compacted on the side of a silo can also start to degrade and produce dangerous gases. An acoustic cleaner will produce sound waves which will make the compacted material resonate at a different rate to the surrounding environment resulting in debonding and clearance.

Advantages of Acoustic cleaners.

• Repetitive use during operations means that there are fewer unscheduled shut downs.
• Improved material flow by the elimination of hang-ups, blocking and bridging.
• Minimisation of cross contamination by ensuring complete emptying of the environment.
• Improved cleaning and reduction of health and safety risks.
• Increased energy efficiency. Reducing the build up on heat exchange surfaces results in lower energy usage.
• Extended plant life. Aggressive cleaning regimes are avoided.
• Ease of operation. It is easy to automate the horns either at regular intervals or to tie the sounding in to changes in their environment such as pressure or flow rates.
• Importantly they prevent the material build up problem from occurring in the first place.

These advantages mean that the financial payback is often very quick.

It is also possible to compare acoustic cleaners directly to alternative solutions.

• Air cannons. These are well established but are expensive with limited coverage thus requiring multi unit purchase. They are also noise intrusive and have a high compressed air consumption.
• Vibrators. These are easy to fit to an empty silo but can cause structural damage as well as contributing to powder compaction.
• Low friction linings. These are very quiet but are expensive to install. Also they are prone to erosion and can then contaminate the environment or product.
• Inflatable pads and liners. Again these are easy to install in an empty silo. They help side wall build up but have no impact on bridging. They are also hard to maintain and can cause compaction.
• Fluidisation through a 1 way membrane. This can help already compacted material. However they are expensive and difficult to install and maintain. They can also contribute to mechanical interlocking and bridging.

Specific applications for Acoustic cleaners

• Boilers. Cleaning of the heat transfer surfaces.
• Electrostatic precipitators. Acoustic cleaners are being used for cleaning hoppers, turning vanes, distribution plates, collecting plates and electrode wires.
• Super heaters, economisers and air heaters.
• Duct work.
• Filters. Acoustic cleaners are used on reverse air, pulse jet and shaker units. They are effective in reducing pressure drop across the collection surface which will increase bag life and prevent hopper pluggage. Generally they can totally replace the both reverse air fans and shaker units and significantly reduce the compressed air requirement on pulse jet filters.
• ID fans. Acoustic cleaning helps to provide a uniform cleaning pattern even for inaccessible parts of the fan. This maintains the balance of the fan.
• Kiln inlet. Acoustic cleaners help to prevent particulate build up at the kiln inlet and this will minimise nose ring formation.
• Mechanical pre Collectors. Acoustic cleaners help prevent build up around the impellers and between the tubes.
• Mills. Acoustic cleaners help maintain material flow and also prevent blockages in the pre grind silos. They also help prevent material build up in the downstream separators and fans.
• Planetary Coolers. Acoustic cleaners help prevent bridging and ensure complete evacuation.
• Precipitator. Acoustic cleaners help clean the turning vanes, distribution plates, collecting plates and electrode wires. They can either assist or replace the mechanical rapping systems. They also prevent particulate build up in the under hoppers which would otherwise result in opacity spiking.
• Pre heaters. Used in towers, gas risers, cyclones and fans.
• Ship cargo holds. Used both to clean and de aerate current loads.
• Silos and hoppers. To prevent bridging and rat holing.
• Static cyclones. Acoustic cleaners will work both within the cyclone and with the associated duct work.

See also

• Ultrasonic cleaner Cleaning using higher frequencies than found in acoustic cleaners.

External links

• Acoustic cleaners The technology and specifications used in the article are provided by Primasonics.

• EtOH, a shorthand form of ethanol, a chemical compound
• “Etoh,” a song by The Avalanches from their 2001 album Since I Left You
• The ETOH database, an Alcohol and Alcohol Problems Science Database, produced by the NIAAA (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism).

also known as alcohol dependece.

See also

• List of wine personalities

Source

• Taber, George M. Judgment of Paris: California vs France and the Historic 1976 Paris Tasting that Revolutionized Wine. NY: Scribner, 2005.

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (called Annex 1 countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. The most important factor of a carbon project is that it establishes that it would not have occurred without the additional incentive provided by emission reductions credits.

The CDM allows net global greenhouse gas emissions to be reduced at a much lower global cost by financing emissions reduction projects in developing countries where costs are lower than in industrialized countries. However, critics argue that by allowing “business as usual” projects some emission reductions under the CDM are false or exaggerated, and in early 2007 the CDM was accused of paying €4.6 billion for projects that would have cost only €100 million if funded by development agencies (see discussion below).

The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board (CDM EB) and is under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties (COP/MOP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

History and Purpose

The CDM was an important feature of the negotiations leading up to the Kyoto Protocol. Some governments desired flexibility in the way that emission reductions could be achieved and proposed international emissions trading as a way of achieving cost-effective emission reductions. At the time it was considered a controversial element and was opposed by environmental NGOs and, initially, by developing countries who felt that industrialised countries should put their own house in order first and feared the environmental integrity of the mechanism would be too hard to guarantee (see Environmental Concerns below). Eventually, and largely on US insistence, the CDM and two other flexible mechanisms were written into the Kyoto Protocol.

The purpose of the CDM was defined under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol. Apart from helping Annex 1 countries comply with their emission reduction commitments, it must assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development, while also contributing to stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

To prevent industrialised countries from making unlimited use of CDM, Article 6.1 d) has a provision that use of CDM be ‘supplemental’ to domestic actions to reduce emissions. This wording has led to a wide range of interpretations - the Netherlands for example aims to achieve half of their required emission reductions (from a BAU baseline) by CDM and JI.

The CDM gained momentum in 2005 after the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. Before the Protocol entered into force, investors considered this a key risk factor. The initial years of operation yielded fewer CDM credits than supporters had hoped for, as Parties did not provide sufficient funding to the EB. This left it understaffed.

CDM project process

Outline of the project process

An industrialised country that wishes to get credits from a CDM project must obtain the consent of the developing country hosting the project that it will contribute to sustainable development. Then, using methodologies approved by the CDM Executive Board (EB), the applicant (the industrialised country) must make the case that the carbon project would not have happened anyway (establishing additionality), and must establish a baseline estimating the future emissions in absence of the registered project. The case is then validated by a third party agency, called a Designated Operational Entity (DOE), to ensure the project results in real, measurable, and long-term emission reductions. The EB then decides whether or not to register (approve) the project. If a project is registered and implemented, the EB issues credits, called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs, equivalent to one metric tonne of CO₂ reduction), to project participants based on the monitored difference between the baseline and the actual emissions, verified by the DOE.

Establishing additionality

To avoid giving credits to projects that would have happened anyway (”freeriders”), rules have been specified to ensure additionality of the project, that is, to ensure the project reduces emissions more than would have occurred in the absence of the project. There are currently two rival interpretations of the additionality criterion:

1. What is often labelled ‘environmental additionality’ has that a project is additional if the emissions from the project are lower than the baseline. It generally looks at what would have happened without the project.
2. In the other interpretation, sometimes termed ‘project additionality’, the project must not have happened without the CDM.

A number of terms for different kinds of additionality have been discussed, leading to some confusion, particularly over the terms ‘financial additionality’ and ‘investment additionality’ which are sometimes used as synonyms. ‘Investment additionality’, however, was a concept discussed and ultimately rejected during negotiation of the Marrakech Accords. Investment Additionality carried the idea that any project that surpasses a certain risk-adjusted profitability threshold would automatically be deemed non-additional article on additionality by Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM), [1]. ‘Financial additionality’ is often defined as an economically non-viable project becoming viable as a direct result of CDM revenues.

Many investors argue that the environmental additionality interpretation would make the CDM simpler. Environmental NGOs have argued that this interpretation would open the CDM to free-riders, permitting developing countries to emit more CO₂ while failing to produce emission reductions in the CDM host countries.

It is never possible to establish with certainty what would have happened without the CDM or in absence of a particular project, which is one common objection to the CDM. Nevertheless, official guidelines have been designed to facilitate uniform assessment Tool for the demonstration and assessment of additionality (Version 03), UNFCCC CDM EB, EB 29, [2] set by the CDM Executive Board for assessing additionality.

Establishing a baseline

The amount of emission reduction, obviously, depends on the emissions that would have occurred without the project. The construction of such a hypothetical scenario is known as the baseline of the project. The baseline may be estimated through reference to emissions from similar activities and technologies in the same country or other countries, or to actual emissions prior to project implementation. The partners involved in the project could have an interest in establishing a baseline with high emissions, which would yield a risk of awarding spurious credits. Independent third party verification is meant to ameliorate this potential problem.

Financial issues

With costs of emission reduction typically much lower in developing countries than in industrialised countries, industrialised countries can comply with their emission reduction targets at much lower cost by receiving credits for emissions reduced in developing countries as long as administration costs are low. However, many CDM projects have led to excessive profits (see next section).

IPCC has projected GDP losses for OECD Europe with full use of CDM and Joint Implementation to between 0.13 and 0.81 % of GDP versus 0.31 to 1.50 %
Climate Change 2001 - Synthesis report. Figure SPM-8, IPCC, 2001, [3] with only domestic action.

While there would always be some cheap domestic emission reductions available in Europe, the cost of switching from coal to gas could be in the order of €40-50 per tonne CO₂ equivalent. CERs from CDM projects were in 2006 traded on a forward basis for between €5 and € 20 per tonne CO₂ equivalent. The price depends on the distribution of risk between seller and buyer. The seller could get a very good price if it agrees to bear the risk that the project’s baseline and monitoring methodology is rejected; that the host country rejects the project; that the CDM Executive Board rejects the project; that the project for some reason produces fewer credits than planned; or that the buyer doesn’t get CERs at the agreed time if the international transaction log is not in place by then. These risks the seller can usually only take if it is a very reliable counterparty rated by international rating agencies.

Concerns

The risk of spurious credits

As CDM is an alternative to domestic emission reductions, the perfectly working CDM would produce no more and no less greenhouse gas emission reductions than without use of the CDM. However, it was recognized from the beginning that if projects that would have happened anyway are registered as CDM projects, then the net effect is an increase of global emissions as the spurious credits will be used to allow higher domestic emissions without reducing emissions in the developing country hosting the CDM project. Similarly, spurious credits may be awarded through overstated baselines, causing the same problem.

NGOs have criticized the inclusion of large hydropower projects, which they consider unsustainable, as CDM projects . Other concerns are the lack of renewable energy CDM projects and the inclusion of sinks see http://www.sinkswatch.org for examples as CDM projects.

Negotiators have not yet been able to agree on whether, or how, carbon capture and storage projects should be allowed under the CDM. They are also discussing how to reduce as much HFC emissions as possible under the CDM without creating a perverse incentive to build more HCFC-22 production facilities just to get the revenues from selling CDM credits. If this were to happen, developing countries’ obligations to stabilise (2016) and phase out (2040) HCFC-22 would be in jeopardy.

In response to concerns of unsustainable projects or spurious credits, the World Wide Fund for Nature and other NGOs devised a ‘Gold Standard’ see http://www.cdmgoldstandard.org/ methodology to certify projects that uses much stricter criteria than required, such as allowing only renewable energy projects.

The NGO CDM Watch argues that a majority of the CDM projects so far (2005) would have happened anyway, referring among other reasons to project activities completed before final approval as CDM projects, and arguing that these would be viable without the CDM financing, and therefore non-additional.

For example, a South African brick kiln was faced with a business decision; replace its depleted energy supply with coal from a new mine, or build a difficult but cleaner natural gas pipeline to another country. They chose to build the pipeline with SASOL. SASOL claimed the difference in GHG emissions as a CDM credit, comparing emissions from the pipeline to the contemplated coal mine.
During its approval process, the validators noted that changing the supply from coal to gas met the CDM’s ‘additionality’ criteria and was the least cost-effective optionUNFCCC CDM Project 0177 Lawley Fuel Switch Project.
However, there were unofficial reports that the fuel change was going to take place anyway, although this was later denied by the company’s press officeCarbon trade watch.

Excessive payments for emission reductions

In early 2007 an issue that had by then already been known for a while”Measuring the Clean Development Mechanism’s Performance and Potential”, by Michael Wara, Program on Energy and Sustainable Development at Stanford University. Working Paper #56, July 2006 [4]. erupted in major media “Billions lost in Kyoto carbon trade loophole” Financial times online, February 7 2007. By Fiona Harvey in London [5] “Kyoto Protocol ‘loophole’ has cost $6 billion” NewScientist.com news service, 09 February 2007
[6]. A study published in Nature “Is the global carbon market working?” by Michael Wara, Nature (vol 445, p 595) 8 February 2007. found that the main type of CDM projects paid as much as 50 times more for the emission reductions than the costs alone would warrant, with the excessive profits ending up with the factories and the carbon traders.

The particular kind of CDM projects in question regard refrigerant-producing factories in non-Annex-1 countries (particularly China) that generate the powerful greenhouse gas HFC 23 as a by-product. By destroying the HFCs, the factories can earn CER credits. Destroying the HFCs requires a simple and relatively cheap piece of equipment called a scrubber; the author argues it would cost only €100 million to pay producers to capture and destroy HFC 23 compared with €4.6 billion in CDM credits. While this is still cheaper than the typical cost of reducing emissions in industrialised countries, it is seen as a major loophole in the carbon trading system and undermines the tenet of emission trading being as a cost-effective tool for reducing emissions. Also, “HFC 23 emitters can earn almost twice as much from the CDM credits as they can from selling refrigerant gases – by any measure a major distortion of the market,” writes the author.

In response, Halldor Thorgeirsson, director of sustainable development mechanisms at the UNFCCC claims: “The idea of easy money is out of proportion.” And he says the loophole is now closed and that new HFC 23 facilities will no longer be eligible for CDM credits.

CDM projects to date

As of 21 August 2007, 762 projects had been registered by the CDM Executive Board as CDM projects source: UNFCCC website, statistics section: [7]. These projects reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 162 million ton CO₂ equivalent per year. All 2,100 projects in the pipeline (most of which not yet registered) would until the end of 2012 produce over 2.2 billion tons CO₂ equivalent reductions. For comparison: The current emissions of the EU-15 are about 4.2 billion ton CO₂ equivalent per year Information from EEA, the European Environment agency, [8]. Of the registered projects in the current pipeline, the majority of CERs have been from HFC destruction projects (see figure), a loophole in the CDM (see discussion above).

References

See also

• Flexible Mechanisms
• UNFCCC
• Mobile Emission Reduction Credit (MERC)

External links

• UNFCCC CDM rules Official rules and procedures governing the CDM.
• CER White Paper White paper on CER valuation
• IPCC IPCC third assessment report chapter 6.3.2.2 The Clean Development Mechanism .
• books.google.com Kyoto Protocol: A Guide and Assessment. Edited by Michael Grubb, Duncan Brack. ISBN 1-85383-581-1.
• jiq.wiwo.nl Foundation Joint Implementation Network has the JIQ newsletter with frequent commentary on the CDM.
• UNEP Risø Centre CD4CDM Publications, database.
• SinksWatch SinksWatch, an NGO concerned with environmental issues of sinks in general and the CDM in particular.

Ingredients as on a 168gm tube of Jelly Tots

Sugar, Glucose syrup, Modified starch, Fruit juices 25% (Strawberry, Orange, Blackcurrant, Lime, Lemon), Acidity regulator (Trisodium citrate), Malic acid, Citric acid, Flavouring, Lactic acid, Colours (Anthocyanins, Copper complexes of chlorophyllins, Beta-carotene).

suitable for Vegetarians.

Nutrition Information (per 100 g)

Energy - 1464 kJ (344 kcal);

Protein - 0.1 g;

Carbohydrate - 86.3 g;

of which sugars - 59.2 g;

Fat - Nil;

of which saturates - Nil;

Fibre - Nil;

Sodium - 0.1 g;

Salt equivalent - 0.1g.

As a seiyū, she is most known for the roles of Hiroshi (Dokonjō Gaeru), Tetsuro Hoshino (Galaxy Express 999), Kitarou (GeGeGe no Kitarou), and Son Goku (Dragon Ball).

Career

Nozawa made her movie debut as a child actor at the age of 3.

Throughout her career as a voice actress, she has performed many male roles (most notably as nearly all the male members of Goku’s family in Dragon Ball Z), leading Japanese fans to give her the nickname “The Eternal Boy”, though she has recently forsaken male roles for elderly woman roles.

On April 1 2006, she resigned from 81 Produce to establish Office Nozawa.

Voice roles

Leading roles in bold

Television animation

• Urusei Yatsura (Kintarō)
• Oz no Mahōtsukai (Princess Ozma)
• Obake no Q-tarō (TBS edition) (Shin’ichi Ōhara (first series))
• Kirarin Revolution (Grandmother)
• Kindaichi Case Files (Tomoyo Konta)
• Galaxy Express 999 (Tetsurō Hoshino)
• Ge Ge Ge no Kitaro (1st and 2nd series) (Kitarō)
• Kimba the White Lion (Gibo)
• Casshan (Māru)
• World Masterpiece Theater series
  • Araiguma Rascal (Rascal)
  • Tom Sawyer no Boken (Tom Sawyer)
  • Ai Shōjo Pollyanna Monogatari (Polly Harrington)
• Tiger Mask (Takeshi)
• The Mysterious Cities of Gold (Esteban)
• Combattler V (Ropet, Oreana, Kinta Ichinoki)
• Tsubasa Chronicle (Kaigyo)
• Digital Monster X-Evolution (Dukemon)
• Digimon Savers (Dukemon)
• Digimon Tamers (Guilmon, Narrator)
• Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure (Urara Nanjōin)
• Hamtaro (Hamtaro’s Granny, Roko-chan’s [”Laura”’s] Grandma)
• Dragon Ball (Son Goku)
• Dragon Ball Z (Son Goku, Son Gohan, Burdock, Son Goten, Vegetto, Gotenks)
• Dragon Ball GT (Son Goku, Son Gohan, Son Goten, Son Goku Jr.)
• Naruto (Old woman)
• Golion/Voltron (Hiroshi Suzuishi/Pidge, Honerva/Haggar)
• Futari wa Pretty Cure series (Sanae Yukishiro)
• Pokémon Advanced Generation (Masamune)
• Sally, the Witch (Tonkichi Hanamura)
• Maya the Bee (Willy)
• Case Closed (Furuyo Senma)
• La Seine no Hoshi (Danton)
• Dororon Enma-kun (Enma-kun)
• Love Get Chu (Takemiya-sensei)
• Love Hina (Hina Urashima)
• Rockman EXE Beast+ (Electel Mama)
• Mirmo! (Kinta)
• One Piece (Doctor Kureha)

Theater animation

• Galaxy Express 999 (Tetsurō Hoshino)
• Flying Phantom Ship (Hayato)
• Digimon Tamers: Battle of Adventurers (Guilmon)
• Digimon Tamers: Runaway Locomon (Guilmon)
• Dragon Ball movies (Son Goku)
• Dragon Ball Z movies (Son Goku, Son Gohan, Son Goten, Gotenks)
  • The Tree of Might (Son Goku, Son Gohan, Tullece)
  • Cooler’s Revenge (Son Goku, Son Gohan, Burdock)
  • Fusion Reborn (Son Goku, Son Gohan, Son Goten, Gogeta)
  • The History of Trunks (Future Gohan)
• Nobita’s Adventure: Drifts in the Universe (Rogu)
• Tokyo Pig (Wenworth)
• Futari wa Pretty Cure Max Heart (Round, Sanae Yukishiro)
• Futari wa Pretty Cure Max Heart 2: Yukizora no Tomodachi (Muta, Sanae Yukishiro)

Computer and video games

• Battle Stadium D.O.N (Son Goku and Son Gohan).
• Kingdom Hearts II (Merryweather)
• Super Robot Wars series (Oreana, Ropet)
• Digimon Tamers Battle Evolution (Guilmon)
• Dragon Ball Z series (Son Goku, Burdock, Son Gohan, Son Goten, Tullece, Vegetto, Gogeta, Gotenks)
• Egg Monster Hero 4 (Four-Dimensional Empress)
• PoPoRoGue (Gilda)

Dubbing roles

• The Goonies (TV edition) (Clark)
• The Poseidon Adventure (Robin Shelby)
• Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (Short-Round)
• Switch (Maggie Philbin)

Live action

• Robot 110-Ban (Gan-chan’s voice)
• Super Voice World: Yume to Jiyū to Happening (DVD)
• Ultraman Story (young Ultraman Tarou’s voice)

Puppet shows

• Nobi Nobi Non-chan (Tame-kun, Ana-chan’s mother, Kitsune’s granny)
• Zawa Zawa Mori no Ganko-chan (Kero-chan)

Radio

• Seishun Adventure: Fūshin Engi (NHK-FM) (Nataku)

CD

• CD Theater: Dragon Quest (Merusera)
• Doraemon Ondō (King Records cover)

Other

• Law of Ueki commercial for Shonen Sunday (Kousuke Ueki)
• Naruhodo! The World (narration)
• NHK Kyōiku: Kagaku Daisukishi you Jaku (narration)
• Wakasa Seikatsu commercial (narration)
• The Wide Friday Ranking (narration)

External links

• Anime News Network

The SkyGX Project is the working group title for the ongoing efforts of a small cadre of dedicated individuals to create and ultimately publish the greatest general all-sky atlas ever: SkyGX. Originally conceived by amateur astronomer Christopher Watson, and currently three years in the making, the SkyGX chartset will illustrate the known visible sky more deeply, more accurately, and more faithfully than any atlas before it. Through acquisition and integration of the most recent astronomical datasets into state-of-the-art computer-plotted digital charts designed with the observer in mind, and diligent review by uncompromising professionals and non-professionals who possess the expertise necessary to “get it right the first time”, it is hoped that SkyGX will be the uranographic paradigm for all things celestial for decades to come.

External link

• The SkyGX Project

The small balls floated due to their nearly equal density to the surrounding liquid, and remained suspended with assistance from an ingredient known as gellan gum. The gellan gum provided a support matrix–something like a microscopic spider web–and had a visual clarity approaching that of water, which increased with the addition of sugar.[1]

Orbitz came in five flavors:

• Raspberry Citrus (introductory flavor)
• Blueberry Melon Strawberry (introductory flavor)
• Pineapple Banana Cherry Coconut (introductory flavor)
• Vanilla Orange (introductory flavor)
• Black Currant Berry (introduced later)

The website for Orbitz existed for a while, but was taken over by the Internet travel agency of the same name (see Orbitz).

Orbitz was disliked during its short stay on the market; the beverage proved to be significantly less popular than the company anticipated. There were few above average reviews of the liquid itself.

Unopened bottles of the beverage have become somewhat of a collector’s item in recent years.

See also

• Bubble tea

Cabanossi is very popular in Australia and New Zealand, being one of the most commonly found types of dry sausage there. In Europe it has a lower profile, competing with a wider selection of other types of sausage.

It is commonly cut into bite sized chunks and eaten cold as an appetiser or snack, often with cubes of cheese and crackers. Sliced cabanossi is also a popular pizza topping.

The song is referenced at the end of Not Now John off the album The Final Cut, which is too, about Eric Fletcher Waters. At the end of the song Waters yells One, Two, FREE FOUR!

Personnel

• Roger Waters - Bass, Vocals and Hand clapping
• David Gilmour - Guitar
• Richard Wright - Synthesiser
• Nick Mason - Drums and Percussion

Commercial refiling of a message will usually require a reformatting of the message, particularly the heading.

Vanilla sugar is made of normal granulated sugar, with vanilla beans or mixed with vanilla extract.

It can be costly and difficult to obtain outside Europe but can be simply made at home. Sometimes it can be replaced with vanilla extract, where one teaspoon equals one package. However, when it is needed as a topping, vanilla extract is unsuitable.

Vanilla sugar can be prepared at home by combining white sugar with vanilla bean pieces, and letting it rest for a few weeks.

Cheaper vanillin sugar is also available, made only from sugar and vanillin.

External links

• How to make vanilla sugar

• Sugar Island (Michigan), in the St. Marys River between Michigan and Ontario
• Sugar Island (Ohio), one of the Bass Islands in Lake Erie
• Sugar Island (Ontario), in the Thousand Islands region of the St. Lawrence River.
• Sugar Island (Maine) largest island of Moosehead Lake.

Process

Freezing only slows the deterioration of food and while it may stop the growth of micro-organisms, it does not necessarily kill them. Many enzyme reactions are only slowed by freezing. Therefore it is common to stop enzyme activity before freezing, either by blanching or by adding chemicals.

Foods may be preserved for several months by freezing. Long-term freezing requires a constant temperature of -18 °C (0 degrees Fahrenheit) or less. Some freezers cannot achieve such a low temperature. The time food can be kept in the freezer is reduced considerably if the temperature in a freezer fluctuates. Fluctuations could occur by a small gap in the freezer door or adding a large amount of unfrozen food.

Texture of frozen food

Freezing adversely affects the texture of many foods, and the texture of nearly all foods is damaged by thawing and re-freezing. Since water expands when it freezes, cell walls in food are often ruptured, resulting in food that is limp or pulpy when thawed. This is especially true of fruits and vegetables that have a high water content. Less damage is done to vegetables that are high in starch. Less damage is also done if the food is frozen quickly, so unfrozen food should be placed in the coldest areas, which are near the bottom of the freezer. Some additives, such as sugar or sorbitol, can hinder water’s crystallization and preserve the food’s cellular structure. Defects in the texture of thawed food can sometimes be obscured by cooking.

Some food is frozen specially to get a frozen texture. Ice cream is an example of a food which is intended for consumption while frozen.

Quick-freezing

American inventor Clarence Birdseye (1886-1956), who developed the quick-freezing process of food preservation in the early 20th century, is considered the father of the frozen-food industry.

The food industry uses a technique called flash freezing, an application of supercooling, to quickly freeze food items. In this case, water contained inside the food is subjected to temperatures well below its melting/freezing point (273 K or 0°C). This causes the water inside the foods to freeze very quickly.

Traditional and other use

Many Arctic communities would preserve food in holes or larders dug into the ice. There is a tradition in Scandinavia of preserving fish and especially herrings in this way.

Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.

Seeds are stored in freezers at −18 °C or below in seedbanks. The seeds are stored as a source for planting in case seed reserves elsewhere should be destroyed. The seeds stored may be those of food crops or rare species.

See also

• Shelf life
• Recommended times for refrigerator and freezer food storage

How a wig-wag works

The wig-wag is mounted atop the washing machine’s transmission, where it oscillates back and forth like a railroad signaling wig-wag (hence the name). When either solenoid is engaged, a rod catches and engages the transmission in the desired mode.

One of the wig-wag’s solenoids is turned on to engage agitation during wash mode; the other solenoid is turned on to engage the spin-dry mode. The motor must be turned on before the solenoids are powered. Only one solenoid may be operated at a time. When neither solenoid is engaged, the transmission is in neutral and only the pump is operating to drain water out of the tub.

During a normal cycle, most Whirlpool-built wig-wag equipped washers will fill, start the motor, then engage the wash solenoid. Upon completion of the wash mode, the wash solenoid will be turned off, which will allow the pump to drain the tub. After a minute or two, the timer will then engage the spin wig-wag which will cause the rotation of the tub. This is in contrast to most other top-load washing machines which start spinning and draining simultaneously.

Problems with the wig-wag mechanism

There are two common failures with the wig-wag mechanism. The first is that a solenoid tends to jam, often due to corrosion from operating in a damp environment. The second common failure is peculiar to the wig-wag - since the wires which operate the solenoids are constantly being flexed by the motion of the wig-wag, they tend to break causing the wash or spin cycle not to engage. Either problem is easily repaired with simple hand tools and inexpensive parts.

External links

• Photo of washing machine wig wag

At high currents, electrolysis of water occurs, expelling Hydrogen and Oxygen gas through the battery’s valves. Care must be taken to prevent short circuits and rapid charging. Charging with a constant voltage (called the float charge voltage; 2.26 V per cell for a lead-acid chemistry) can cause a rapid initial current, so therefore it is suggested to begin with a constant current, using constant voltage only for the final portion of the charging. However, the float charge voltage should not be exceeded by much for typical usage, so the switch between the two modes typically occurs when the float voltage is needed to sustain the charging current through the battery’s internal resistance (as per Ohm’s Law). The easiest way to implement this is to use a constant voltage device with a current limiter.

See also

• Rechargeable battery
• Lead-acid battery
• Absorbent glass mat

Unlike most other French wine regions, there is only one AOC appellation for most wines made in the whole of Alsace. Other French wine regions have numerous appellations within them, often designating wine from a particular town or, even, an area within a certain town. The Alsace Grand Cru AOC was not created until 1975.

External links

• The Official Alsace wines home page
• Wines, villages and terroirs of Alsace

See Also

• Alsace wine
• Alsace Grand Cru AOC
• Crémant d’Alsace AOC

As of 2006, the Alberta is the only Canadian province to have (re-)enacted completely privatized liquor retailing. All other provinces maintain government ownership and control over much of the liquor industry, especially with respect to distilled spirits. This privatization was carried out in late 1993 and early 1994 under the auspicies of one of the AGLC’s predecessors, the ALCB.

History

The sale and distribution of beverage alcohol in Alberta had been conducted privately, under licence until 1916 when, during the height of the Prohibition movement, the Liberal government called a plebiscite in which Albertans voted in favour of the Liquor Act, which imposed an outright ban on the sale of alcohol in the province.

As was the case throughout North America, Prohibition proved to be an utter farce in Alberta. However, the United Farmers government that replaced the Liberals in 1921 knew that the still-powerful temperance movement would have to be appeased, so when they called a new plebiscite to repeal Prohibition in 1924 they promised that the sale of alcoholic beverages would be tightly controlled. When the plebiscite passed and Prohibition was repealed, the Liquor Act was replaced by the Liquor Control Act and the Alberta Liquor Control Board was created. The first hotels to be re-licensed were the Palliser Hotel in Calgary and the MacDonald Hotel in Edmonton.

The ALCB would maintain tight control over the Albertan liquor industry for the next seven decades. Hotels that met the strict requirements for a liquor licence had to adhere to draconian rules regarding the décor, cleanliness and aura of the establishment. According to historian David Leonard, the idea was to make drinking establishments as sparse as possible. Patrons were not allowed to stand up with their drinks in hand and entertainment in a licensed beverage room was prohibited. Although women were allowed to drink alongside their male counterparts at first, “mixed” drinking was later blamed for riotous behaviour and in 1928 the Liquor Control Act was amended, so that special rooms had to be put together for “Ladies and Escorts.” In the 1930s the ALCB took it upon themselves to arm hire armed officers to enforce the Liquor Control Act. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police would assume enforcement duties after taking over provincial policing duties from the Alberta Provincial Police in 1932.

Beer off-sales were permitted from hotels starting in 1934, however the sale of wine and hard liquor remained very tightly controlled. As was the case in most Canadian provinces, the only legal way to purchase spirits in Alberta was to travel to a deliberately uninviting ALCB store, where the customer was forced to apply in paper for what they wanted and have it then fetched by a staff member after the customer’s age was carefully checked. The ALCB did not permit individualized packaging for wine or spirits, rather they purchased wine and spirits from the wineries and distillers in bulk barrels and bottled them into stone jars and bottles with the ALCB brand for sale in stores. ALCB stores were few and far between (especially in rural areas), and spirits were frequently watered down prior to bottling.

A Social Credit government would assume office in 1935 and the Socreds would go on to dominate Albertan politics for the next three decades. The socially conservative governments of Premiers William Aberhart and Ernest Manning were slower to relax liquor laws compared to most of their contemporaries in other provinces. In one notable policy, the Social Credit government refused to licence commercial airlines during their tenure and took vigorous steps to ensure that commercial flights were not serving alcohol whilst travelling through Albertan airspace.

The Albertan government and ALCB started loosening some restrictions in the 1950s and 1960s. Clubs and canteens could be licensed from 1950 onwards. In a plebiscite held in 1957, voters in and near Edmonton and Calgary voted overwhelmingly to de-segregate beverage rooms, however men and women would not be allowed to drink together province-wide until 1967. Having repealed the requirement for customer signatures on counter slips to purchase alcohol in 1965, in 1969 the ALCB opened its first self-serve liquor store in Edmonton. By 1970 the ALCB was no longer bottling products.

The Progressive Conservative government that replaced the Socreds in 1971 moved to loosen restrictions further, lowering the drinking age from 21 to 18 after taking office. Although some Albertan MLA’s since then have mooted raising the drinking age back to 19 to match the laws of neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan, the lower drinking age remains in effect as of 2007. Responsibility for domestic beer warehousing was transferred to the Alberta Brewers’ Agents Limited in 1973.

The 1980s would see restrictions relaxed further, with the first wine stores licensed in 1985 and the first hotel-based cold beer stores approved in 1988. In 1990 hotel off-sales expanded from beer only to beer, wine and spirits.

Privatization

The complete privatization of Albertan liquor retailing following former Calgary mayor Ralph Klein’s assumption of the premiership in 1992 is the most notable event in the ALCB’s history, and for many Canadians it is also the most controversial event in the recent history of alcoholic beverage distribution in Canada. Klein promised Albertan voters the liquor industry would be privatized if he was elected in the 1993 election. After he won the election, the Klein government carried out the privatization almost immediately.

Under Municipal Affairs Minister Steve West, privatization was carried out in a strictly business-like manner. [1] The 202 ALCB liquor stores were systematically sold off. Where private interests believed an existing ALCB store could be profitably operated as a privately owned liquor store, the store continued to operate under new ownership. Liquor stores that were not economically viable in the private sector were closed down with the properties sold to the highest bidder. Between September 4, 1993 and March 5, 1994, every ALCB store was either sold or shut down. With respect to the ALCB stores that were converted to private liquor stores, the Alberta Union of Provincial Employees was denied successor rights to the private stores. Whereas all non-management ALCB employees in 1993 belonged to the AUPE, as of 2006 no priavtely-owned liquor store is known to have become unionized except for those owned and operated by Loblaws under the Great Canadian Liquor Store and those owned and operated by Safeway in conjunction with a Safeway Grocery Store.

The ALCB initially retained warehousing and distribution responsibilities for wine, coolers, imported beer and spirits. The warehousing operation was contracted out to a private operator, Connect Logistics in June 1994. Connect Logistics leased the ALCB’s existing warehouse in St. Albert and continues to warehouse all wine, coolers, imported beer and spirits legally sold in Alberta as of 2006. The AUPE was again denied successor rights to the Connect Logistics-operated warehouse and the warehouse thus became a non-union operation.

Privatization was controversial, attracting criticism from people who worried about the social costs of liquor privatization. However, all available evidence indicates that privatization has had no social consequences in Alberta. In the end, the fiercest sustained opposition came from organized labour who were upset about the sudden loss of thousands of unionized public sector jobs.

It is worth noting that ALCB workers had gone on strike earlier in 1993 and caused an interruption in service at Albertan liquor stores. Compared to other Canadians, Albertans are generally seen as less friendly to unions and many Albertans were disappointed by what they interpreted as the union’s lack of concern for Albertans’ social lives (the strike over the Victoria Day weekend). Some Alberta labour leaders continue to view the privatization as a retaliation against a legal strike. It is still debated whether this strike directly influenced the Tories’ election promise and subsequent decision to privatize liquor store, or influenced some Albertans to vote for Klein as a result.

The AGLC today

Privatization remains controversial in 2007, with complaints and then legal action now coming from liquor retailers who say the Connect Logistics-run monopoly is failing them. Retailers are supposed to receive orders within 48 hours of placing them, but they are complaining that some orders have been arriving more than a week late. The result is empty shelves especially in the smaller retailers as they cannot afford large inventories. The tight Albertan labour market may be a factor (truck drivers are in especially short supply as of 2006); however at least one spokesman for the private liquor industry said the problems may deter other provinces from adopting the Albertan model. [2] The AGLC asked its distributor to fix the problem by September 30, 2006. The deadline has now been pushed back to January 15, 2007. [3]
Further deregulating the wholesale of liquor in Alberta, in such more than one distributor would be allowed to operate, has been proposed as a solution to the distribution bottleneck.

In July 2007 the AGLC approved a request by Connect Logistics to re-structure its wholesale pricing system. The distributor says that once implemented, prices for product sold by the pallet will be modestly lower while prices for product sold by the case will be modestly higher (essentially, retailers will be able to claim quantity discounts for large orders). While representatives for Connect Logistics claim that such a system will better represent the actual handling costs of each order, some managers of smaller stores are lamenting that the system will work to the advantage of larger operators. [4]

Following the succession of Ed Stelmach to the premiership, the AGLC became involved in further controversy when it told the Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association that it would extend a policy allowing underage musicians to play in Albertan bars so as to allow minors who are at least 16 years of age to work in the kitchens of bars. [5] This drew predictable anger from the Alberta Federation of Labour, who claimed that the AGLC was planning to allow minors as young as 12 to work in bar kitchens. The AGLC then flip flopped and cancelled the entire program, meaning underage musicians will no longer be allowed to play in Albertan establishments. This in turn drew predictable anger from the Albertan music industry, since there are few other viable venues in abundance for these artists. [6]

Although Alberta has deregulated its retail liquor industry to a greater extent compared to any other province, its Connect Logistics-administered monopoly on the wholesaling of wine and distilled spirits is comparable to the systems in U.S. alcoholic beverage control states such as Michigan. This means that by U.S. standards, Alberta would still be defined as a “control” jurisdicition.

Organization and Mandate

The AGLC consists of a Board and a Corporation. The Corporation acts as the operational arm of the organization, while the Board is responsible for reflecting the government’s direction through policy and regulatory matters.

Although liquor is retailed in Alberta by private interests on a competitive basis, like its predecessor the AGLC has maintained a monopoly over the wholesaling of wine, coolers, imported beer and spirits. The AGLC, technically speaking, continues to be the purchaser of these products and thus Albertan liquor taxes (which are still relatively high compared to taxes in the U.S.) are technically termed the AGLC liquor markup. The wholesaling operation itself is mostly handled by Connect Logistics who continue to be based in St. Albert. Maintaining a monopoly over the wholesale business allows the AGLC to maintain tighter controls over liquor distribution than a more competitive system would allow, in particular it allows the AGLC to ensure that it does not miss out on any of its “markups” (the bulk of the liquor tax in any Canadian province, including Alberta is the provincial liquor markup).

On May 25, 1999 the AGLC became part of the Ministry of Gaming, which is headed by a minister who is a member of the Albertan Cabinet. The current minister (as of May 2006) is Gord Graydon. The policies of the Minister and his staff are carried out by the AGLC.

External links

• Alberta Gaming and Liquor Commission

History

Caol Ila (Gaelic for “Sound of Islay” and pronounced cull eela) was founded in 1846 by Hector Henderson. The distillery did not fare well, and changed hands in 1854 when Norman Buchanan, owner of the Isle of Jura Distillery, took over.

In 1863 the business was acquired by Bulloch Lade & Co, of Glasgow, traders in whisky stocks. By the 1880s over 147,000 gallons of whisky were produced there each year.

In 1920 Bulloch Lade went into voluntary liquidation, and a consortium of businessmen formed the Caol Ila Distillery Company Ltd. In 1927 the Distillers Company Limited acquired a controlling interest in Caol Ila, and in 1930 Scottish Malt Distillers Ltd obtained ownership of all the shares. The company eventually became part of Diageo.

The distillery closed during World War II, from 1941–1945, because of wartime restrictions on the supply of barley to distillers. From then, production continued until 1972, when the entire structure of the distillery was demolished. A larger distillery was built in the same original architectural style, and production resumed in 1974.

The whisky

Caol Ila is one of the lighter Islay whisky, pale in colour, with peaty, floral and peppery notes.

See also

• Islay whisky
• Whisky
• Scotch whisky
• List of whisky brands
• List of distilleries in Scotland

External links

• Caol Ila official website
• Caol Ila visitor information
• Islay Whisky Society

Cause

The effect is a consequence of the fact that alcohol has a lower surface tension than water. If alcohol is mixed with water inhomogeneously, a region with a lower concentration of alcohol will pull on the surrounding fluid more strongly than a region with a higher alcohol concentration. The result is that the liquid tends to flow away from regions with higher alcohol concentration. This can be easily and strikingly demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface and then allowing a drop of alcohol to fall on the center of the film. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell.

Wine is mostly a mixture of alcohol and water, with dissolved sugars, acids, colours, and flavours. Where the surface of the wine meets the side of the glass, capillary action makes the liquid climb the side of the glass. As it does so, both alcohol and water evaporate from the rising film, but the alcohol evaporates faster, due to its higher vapor pressure and lower boiling point. This change in the composition of the film causes its surface tension to increase - this in turn causes more liquid to be drawn up from the bulk of the wine, which has a lower surface tension because of its higher alcohol content. The wine which moves up the side of the glass then forms droplets which fall back under their weight.

The phenomenon was first correctly explained by physicist James Thomson, the elder brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1855. It is an instance of what is today called the Marangoni effect (or the Gibbs-Marangoni effect): the flow of liquid caused by surface tension gradients.

It is sometimes claimed incorrectly that wine with “lots of legs” is sweeter or of a better quality. In fact the intensity of this phenomenon depends only on alcohol content, and it can be eliminated completely by covering the wine glass (which stops the evaporation of the alcohol). British physicist C. V. Boys argues that the biblical injunction

refers to this effect. Since the “tears of wine” are most noticeable in wine which has a high alcohol content, the author may be suggesting this as a way to identify wines which should be avoided in the interest of sobriety.

Related phenomena

Other fluid phenomena that arise in alcohol/water mixtures include beading and viscimetry. These are more pronounced in liquor than in wine, and both phenomena are more pronounced in stronger liquor.

Beading refers to the formation of stable bubbles when liquor is shaken; this only occurs above 46%-50% alcohol, and is another example of the Marangoni effect.
Shaking a whisky bottle to form beads is referred to as “beating the whisky”.

Viscimetry is the formation of whorls when water is added to a high alcohol mixture.

See also

• Surface tension
• Marangoni effect

References

• James Thomson, “On certain curious motions observable on the surfaces of wine and other alcoholic liquours,” Philosophical Magazine, 10, 330 (1855).
• Carlo Marangoni, “On the expansion of a drop of liquid floating in the surface of another liquid,” (1865).
• C.V. Boys, Soap Bubbles: Their Colours and the Forces the Mould Them, 2nd ed., Ch. 2, (1911).
• Wine ‘Legs’, from KitchenSavvy

The frying is typically done in butter or vegetable oil, and chopped onions, pepper, and other ingredients are typically added.

The consistency depends on the type of potato used. Although various types of white potatoes are the most popular base, sometimes waxy (usually red-skinned) or sweet potatoes are used.

In North America, home fries are usually served for breakfast. There are many ways people eat them, for example with ham and eggs, or covered with ketchup. In some locations, home fries are even used as a pizza topping.

External links

• A recipe for home fries

See also

• Independent Local Radio

Some operate as stores that sell books or videos, while others operate as night clubs that provide live entertainment.

In the latter case, the club will probably sell food and (if legal) alcoholic beverages.

Such businesses are sometimes considered exploitative because they tend to take advantage of their hired entertainment by using their sex appeal to increase the state of sexual arousal of its customers who, in turn, tend to spend more money as a result.

An increasing number of such businesses are becoming owned by the entertainers themselves as they seek to remove the exploitative stigma associated with them.

Design variations

Although they all use the same physical principle to generate heat, electric heaters differ in the way they deliver that heat to the environment. Several types are described in the sections below.

Radiative heaters or “space heaters”

Radiative heaters contain a heating element that reaches a high temperature. The element is usually packaged inside a glass envelope resembling a light bulb and with a reflector to direct the energy output away from the body of the heater. The element emits infrared radiation that travels through air or space until it hits an absorbing surface, where it is partially converted to heat and partially reflected. This heat directly warms people and objects in the room, rather than warming the air. This style of heater is most useful in an area that is unable to be kept with minimal airflow. They are also ideal for basements and garages since they are good at spot heating. They are an excellent choice for task specific heating.

They operate silently. Radiant heaters present the greatest potential danger to ignite nearby furnishings due to the focused intensity of their output and lack of overheat protection.

Convection heaters

In a convection heater, the heating element heats the air next to it by conduction. Hot air is less dense than cool air, so it rises due to buoyancy, allowing more cool air to flow in to take its place. This sets up a constant current of hot air that leaves the appliance through vent holes and heats up the surrounding space. They are ideally suited for heating a closed space. They operate silently and have the lowest risk of ignition hazard in the event that they make unintended contact with furnishings. This is a good choice for long periods of time or if left unattended. They are very safe heaters and there is a very low chance of getting burned.

In the United Kingdom, these appliances are sometimes called electric fires, because they were originally used to replace open fires.

Fan heaters or “forced convection heaters”

A fan heater is a variety of convection heater that includes an electric fan to speed up the airflow. This reduces the thermal resistance between the heating element and the surroundings, allowing heat to be transferred more quickly.

They operate with considerable noise caused by the fan. They have a moderate risk of ignition hazard in the event that they make unintended contact with furnishings. This is a good choice for quick heating of closed spaces however they should not be left unattended.

Storage heating

A storage heating system takes advantage of cheaper electricity prices, sold during low demand periods such as overnight. In the United Kingdom, this is branded as Economy 7. The storage heater stores heat in clay bricks, then releases it during the day when required.

Domestic electrical underfloor heating

These systems are called radiant heating systems, regardless of whether they include a heat exchanger (also called a radiator) or are electrically powered.

When a home radiant heat system is turned on, current flows through a conductive heating material. For high-voltage radiant heat systems, line voltage (110 V or 230 V) current flows through the heating cable. For low-voltage systems, the line voltage is converted to low voltage (8 to 30 V) in the control unit (which contains a step-down transformer) and this low voltage is then applied to the heating element.

The heated material then heats the flooring until it reaches the right temperature set by the floor thermostat. The flooring then heats the adjacent air, which circulates, heating other objects in the room (tables, chairs, people) by convection. As it rises, the heated air will heat the room and all its contents up to the ceiling. This form of heating gives the most consistent room temperature from floor to ceiling compared to any other heating system.

Environmental aspects

Direct electric heating is usually not considered environmentally friendly because most electricity is generated remotely using fossil fuels, with up to two-thirds of energy in the fuel lost at the power station and in transmission losses. In Sweden the use of direct electric heating has been restricted since the 1980s for this reason, and there are plans to phase it out entirely - see Oil phase-out in Sweden - while Denmark has banned the installation of electric space heating in new buildings for similar reasons.The Green Electricity Illusion, AECB, published 2005-11-11, accessed 2007-05-26

In contrast, hot-water central heating systems can use water heated in or close to the building using high-efficiency condensing boilers, biofuels, heat pumps or district heating. Ideally wet underfloor heating should be used. This can be relatively easily converted in the future to use developing technologies such as solar panels, so also providing future-proofing.

In the case of new buildings, low-energy building techniques can be used which can virtually eliminate the need for heating, such as those built to the Passive House standard.

If electricity is the only feasible energy source, the use of a heat pump can use warmth in the ground or air as a heat source, normally cutting the electricity consumption and also the environmental impact.

Economic aspects

The operation of electric resistance heaters to heat an area for a long period of time is generally considered to be costly. However intermittent or partial day use can be more cost efficient than whole building heating since there savings due to superior zonal control.

Example: A lunch room in an office setting has limited hours of operation. During low use periods a “monitor” level of heat (50 °F/10 °C) is provided by the central heating system. Peak use times between the hours of 11:00–14:00 are heated to “comfort levels” (70 °F/21 °C). Significant savings can be realized in overall energy consumption since infrared radiation losses through thermal conductivity are not as large with a smaller temperature gradient both between this space and unheated outside air as well as between the refrigerator and the (now cooler) lunch room.

Mathematical analysis

According to Joule’s Law, the heat power produced by a resistor is:

<math>P=IV</math>

where

P is the power in watts

I is the current in amperes, and

V is the potential difference in volts,

and according to Ohm’s Law I and V are related as follows:

<math>V=IR</math>

where

R is the resistance of the heating element, in ohms.

We can combine these two formulae to obtain the heat output from the heating element in terms of either current or voltage:
<math>P=I^2R=\frac {V^2} R</math>

For heaters powered by AC mains, I and V are the root mean square (RMS) values of current and voltage.

See also

• Thermal efficiency
• Central heating
• Energy conservation
• HVAC
• Renewable energy
• Underfloor heating

References

Sparkling wines are produced in this appellation from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains grapes.

See also

• French wine